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Introduction

Modern physics describes elementary particles as point objects or perturbations of quantum fields, but another interpretation is possible. This chapter considers the hypothesis that particles are standing waves of energy density and their properties can be explained through de Broglie waves.

We will also consider how particle birth can be explained within this model and why the law of conservation of energy leads to the symmetry of matter and antimatter.

Standing waves of energy density and particles

To date, science does not describe the origin of electric charge. What is its nature? Why is its value constant for elementary particles? Charge does not change its sign or its value regardless of the environment. Why does the mass of a body change when the speed of motion changes, but nothing happens to the charge? What is this parameter — charge?

It is known that:

1/c = αћ/e²

where

e is the charge of the electron,

ћ is the reduced Planck constant,

c is the speed of light.

One constant is expressed through another constant.

Can be reviewed at the link (http://nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru/misc/constants.htm).

The physical quantity that is the inverse of speed is called pace. The pace shows how long it takes you to cover the desired distance.

This parameter is clearly a characteristic of an elementary particle, not an interaction, but a characteristic of a particle. It is clearly related to the rate from the speed of light. Question — what and how is overcome in the particle? What can we talk about?

It is necessary to understand what and where it is moving and why the tempo can take values «+1», «-1» and 0 (I have divided the tempo byαћ/e², because it is all a constant, but I have kept the sign of the charge, it will be very useful for us), let it be only numbers that tell us only about the direction. I.e.: «+1» means something is travelling somewhere at the speed of light in one direction, «-1» is movement in the opposite direction, and «0» is as if there is no movement in either direction.

As it was shown in the previous chapter — electromagnetic wave, being transverse, at its propagation gives birth to longitudinal waves of energy at its propagation. These two waves are interconnected. One propagates in the dimension of space, the other in the sphere. Energy fluctuations will occur in independent coordinates. It can also be said that the planes in which these two waves oscillate are orthogonal to each other, which means that to describe the overall process, both of these processes must be taken into account. The two processes will be related, but will be described in their own coordinates.

Since the particle is isolated in the dimension of space, it is logical to assume that it is a standing wave in the dimension of space. The particle is a standing wave, longitudinal, born by the propagation of an electromagnetic wave.

Let’s consider a few possible cases. First option:

Fig. 1 The first elementary particle, the neutral, neutrino

The wave has one node. The wave has run once up, and once down. The result is zero. This is the first and neutral particle. Let’s assume it’s a neutrino. If there is a standing wave node at the centre of the circle, the particle will be neutral. With an odd number of nodes the particle will be neutral, with an even number of nodes the particle will be «charged».

Fig. 2 Electron and positron

I will assume that this pair of particles is an electron and a positron. For the electron, the wave has travelled down twice and up once. Two of the beams are negative and one is positive. If we add them up, we get the tempo.

I think this is what characterises the tempo in the case of elementary particles. For the electron, it’s -1. For the positron, it’s +1.

Thus, the charge is related to the inverse of this characteristic squared. That’s why it’s a constant. This is true only for standing waves, which can exist indefinitely. The main thing to understand is that it is not the electromagnetic wave itself, but the wave of energy density distribution in the region of space, which the electromagnetic wave created during its propagation.

This is the first «charged» particle — electron and positron. In this case, the electric charge is responsible for the rate of change of the wave in a region of space. For standing waves we always know the tempo, it must be an integer from the array of numbers -1, 0 and +1. There are three values in total. The characteristics that will change are the radius of the circumference of the particle and the number of nodes or bunches.

It is worth paying attention to the fact that for matter, «charged» particles in the centre always have a positive value of change in energy density on the space side. The energy density on the space side is increasing, the process of compression is going on. For antimatter, it is always negative. The energy of the electromagnetic wave is spent on decreasing the energy density on the side of space, there is a stretching of space. You can see the relationship between tempo and charge. I have omitted the figures. The main thing is to understand the physics of the process.

Consider the following possible particle (both as a wave and as energy regions). Suppose that it is a proton and an antiproton:

Fig. 3 Proton and antiproton

It is known that the proton consists of three quarks in the case of the simple model. In fact, this structure can be supplemented by other quarks. This is clearly seen when considering the structure as a wave of changing energy density. Quarks in this case, are nothing but half-waves of curvature of space, half-waves of change of energy density in a region of space. Therefore quarks by themselves cannot exist, the meaning of a standing wave is lost. These half waves are different, three of one sign and two of another. In this case, it turns out that the proton is made up of five quarks. The concept of quark is very convenient for describing the interactions within the atom, will help to describe the sublevels for electrons, will describe the absorption and release of energy in the form of quanta, at the transition of electrons on sublevels, and also allows you to accurately calculate and describe the processes of nuclear reactions.

For «charged» particles, some gradient of density change in the region of space is formed at their boundary. The energy density will either increase or decrease. Hence there is an effect of interaction of «charged» particles. Like-minded particles repel, like-minded particles attract. This can be explained by the fact that the total energy density of the surrounding WORLD will try to minimise the distortions created by the density of particles at their boundary.

One should not also forget what the «charged» particle carries in its centre. This is very important. The difference of behaviour of matter and antimatter depends on the last factor. For matter in the centre of the particle there will be an increased energy density in the space area compared to the surrounding WORLD, which will lead to the gravitational effect and macro-objects will be created. In the case of antimatter the process will go the opposite way, all particles will try to «move away» from each other as far as possible. But at the same time antimatter will try to group at some distance from the matter particles. This will happen along the sphere.

A fuller description of these processes, as well as the birth principles of existing interactions, can be found in the philosophical work https://dzen.ru/a/ZoLSeRy9DQ8jA_Z2 or https://zenodo.org/records/15064958.

De Broglie waves as the basis of particle structure

In the framework of the hypothesis of standing waves of energy density particles can be considered as nodes of such waves. The de Broglie wave associated with a particle does not simply describe its motion, but is its structural element. The de Broglie wavelength is determined by the relation:

Where:

  • h is Planck’s constant,
  • m is the mass of the particle,
  • c is the speed of light.

If a particle is a standing wave, its size must correspond to an integer number of half-waves, which explains energy quantisation.

There was an article written on this topic https://dzen.ru/a/Z7GBl8tL9DbB2x5L or https://zenodo.org/records/14883086 .

Fractal structure of particles

If matter is considered from the point of view of waves, we can assume the existence of similar structures, but with different scales. I.e. we can assume a fractal structure of the Universe. This means that at different levels of fractality particles can look like macro analogues of each other. For example, if a neutron is a standing wave with three nodes, then a similar structure can appear on larger scales, for example, in the form of a galaxy. In the following, a formula will be presented that may be able to describe this process.

Particle birth and the law of conservation of energy

How particles are born

In the framework of the proposed model the birth of particles can be represented as a process of local redistribution of energy density. When in vacuum there arise fluctuations of energy density, they can lead to formation of stable standing waves which are perceived as particles.

The birth of particles is accompanied by the formation of matter and antimatter particles. This follows from the law of conservation of energy: any local fluctuation must be compensated by an equal and opposite fluctuation.

Why there is no symmetry breaking of matter and antimatter

It is usually considered that in the Universe there is an excess of matter over antimatter, but in the framework of this model symmetry breaking is not required. If a particle is a standing wave of energy density, its antipode may be a wave with opposite phase. The difference between matter and antimatter may lie in where the maxima and minima of energy density are located.

In a confined space, the redistribution of energy density will be due to the structure of the particles themselves:

  • In the centre of matter particles (with an even number of nodes) there is a region with increased energy density, which leads to the effect of creating macro-objects and the emergence of gravity.
  • In the centre of antimatter particles (with even number of nodes) there is a region with reduced energy density, which leads to their scattering from each other and formation of antigravity effect.
  • Neutral particles are standing waves with an odd number of nodes. There is no density change at their centre, but they have the property of rotation. The antiparticle in this case differs only in the direction of rotation.

Antimatter is not capable of forming macroobjects because of the peculiarities of its structure. While matter particles tend to combine and can lead to the formation of black holes, antimatter is probably not capable of forming atoms more complex than antihydrogen. Instead, it would be distributed in a sphere around the forming black hole, contributing to the balance of energy in space.