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Author — Sergey Skrynnik

Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty, mailing address is: science@ast-1c.kz

26 June 2024

Preface

Correction dated 21 December 2024.

The paper considers the possibility of a new understanding of the physical nature of the electric charge of an elementary particle based on the assumption of the structure of an elementary particle as a standing wave. There is an explanation of the nature of the origin of gravitational force based on the explanation of redistribution of energy density. The explanation of absence of dark matter is given, and also the explanation of many other effects. Fractality of the WORLD is shown when considering elementary particles and galaxies.

The following main theses are put forward:

1. There is only one constant in the WORLD and that is ENERGY. Everything around is energy.

2. Elementary particles of matter and antimatter are standing waves of medium-energy. Quarks are half-waves of standing waves — particles, so they cannot exist separately.

3. electric charge is related to the rate of energy transition either from the space dimension to the magnetic dimension or vice versa. The sign of the charge indicates the direction of energy transition at the boundary of the elementary particle. A negative one indicates that there is a transition of energy from the electromagnetic dimension to the dimensional dimension. Positive charge indicates the energy flow from the dimensionality domain to the electromagnetic dimension at the boundary of the elementary particle.

4. In particles of matter in the centre there is always a region of energy transition from space dimension to magnetic dimension. In antimatter particles the opposite is true — from magnetic dimension to dimensional dimension.

5. A black hole is a point of energy transition from the dimension of space to the magnetic or fifth dimension. In three-dimensional space, the magnetic dimension is the surface of a sphere.

6. The world is fractal, in the centre of elementary particles there is its own black hole. The difference is only in frequencies or sizes, they are conditioned by the medium of propagation — energy. The world at the level of sizes of elementary particles repeats the WORLD at the level of sizes of galaxies, well or vice versa.

7. The gravitational force is formed due to the change of energy density in the space dimension in a certain volume. Or we can say that the gravitational force is formed due to the «flow» of energy from the area of space dimension to the area of magnetic dimension.

8. In the centre of a matter particle there is a space with a rarefied energy density because of which matter particles are able to group together, to form macro-objects. In the centre of antimatter particles there is a space with increased energy density, which leads to the dispersion of antimatter particles relative to each other. I.e. matter in relation to matter exhibits gravitational force, and antimatter in relation to antimatter exhibits antigravity. Matter and antimatter under ordinary conditions do not manifest neither of them in relation to each other. From this it also follows that antimatter is not capable of creating atoms more complex than the antihydrogen atom.

9. A photon is a particle (standing wave) with a unique geometry. The shape of a photon is not an ideal sphere, the photon’s centre of mass is displaced relative to its geometric centre, which creates its unique dynamics and explains its constant motion at the constant speed of light. The photon can also have spin around the axis connecting its centre of mass and geometric centre.

In this article an attempt is made to theoretically describe the processes occurring in the universe. No special mathematical apparatus is present in it.

My mailing address is: science@ast-1c.kz

Structure of elementary particles. Charge and spin of elementary particles. Photon. Gravitational and anti-gravitational forces.

For a long time I have not given rest to the question — what is the electric charge? Why it is always equal to a specific number, meaning the minimum charge of an elementary particle, quarks are not interested, they do not exist separately, and this is also an explanation, but about it a little later. Why at change of speed of movement the mass of a body changes, and nothing happens to the charge? What is this indicator — charge? The funny thing is that the answer is already known for a long time, but for some reason the physical component is always omitted.

It has long been known that:

1/c = αћ/e²,

where e is the charge of the electron,

ћ is the reduced Planck constant,

c is the speed of light.

That is, one constant is equal to another constant. You can look at the link (http://nuclphys.sinp.msu.ru/misc/constants.htm second line)

or at the link (https://n-t.ru/tp/ns/oss.htm).

But physically, the inverse of speed is called pace. It shows how long it takes you to cover the desired distance.

This parameter is precisely a characteristic of an elementary particle, not interaction, but precisely a characteristic of a particle, and it is clearly related to the rate from the speed of light. And so the question is what and how is overcome in the particle? What can we talk about?

It is known that an electromagnetic wave propagates perpendicular to its oscillations. It is also known that the magnetic and electric components of the wave are perpendicular to each other. That is, the «plane» of the electromagnetic dimension must be perpendicular to the spatial dimensions x, y, and z. Since all coordinates are equivalent, the plane of the electromagnetic dimension is actually nothing but a sphere. Only in this case the condition of transverse waves will be fulfilled.

Returning to the concept of tempo, the main thing is to understand what and where it is moving and why the tempo can take the values ‘+1’, ‘-1’ and 0 (I divided the tempo by αћ/e², because it is all a constant, but I kept the sign of the charge, it will be very useful to us), let it be only numbers that tell us only about the direction. I.e.: ‘+1’ means something is travelling somewhere at the speed of light in one direction, “-1” is movement in the opposite direction, and “0” is as if there is no movement in either direction.

The next question that arises on its own is this:

How is a particle (electromagnetic wave) different from any other electromagnetic wave not a particle?

The only answer that came to my mind:

The particle must be a standing wave in the dimension of space, not on the sphere of electromagnetic dimension, but exactly in space, because the particle has isolation exactly in the dimension of space, i.e. it has a certain size and location. Only in this case there will be no propagation of electromagnetic wave in space. Such a wave will be an isolated element — a particle. The surrounding space will fulfil the role of a waveguide. Theoretically it does not violate anything, transverse waves are possible only in elastic medium, where longitudinal waves are also possible. Moreover, the interaction of magnets and charges has long been known. Since a wave is formed from a point, it means that at a distance r from this point along the entire circumference the whole wave already exists, it exists simultaneously and therefore creates an effect on itself. In that sense it is more like a kind of spring. The problem, of course, is the definition of the medium itself, and this has been debated for years. But, in fact, the medium itself is not important for us, the interactions themselves are already known. Based on the above, let us imagine our particle as a ball, and consider its cross-section, where along the x-axis there is a propagation of an electromagnetic wave, along the y-axis there is a change of some characteristic of something related to the change of the electromagnetic dimension, but unlike the electromagnetic wave, this something must change in the region of space, along the propagation of the wave. This something must not allow the particle to «disintegrate» and become just an electromagnetic wave. It does not matter what this characteristic is and what to call it, it is something that depends on the characteristics of the magnetic component and the electric component of the electromagnetic wave. It is also worth noting that the electromagnetic wave itself propagates along a circle, at the boundary of the particle. Let there be a string inside this circle, which will make transverse oscillations. We will consider only standing waves, the maths for which has long been well known. And so the first variant:

Fig.1 The first elementary particle, the neutral, neutrino

The wave has one node, the wave has travelled both up and down, the result is zero — it is the first and neutral particle, suppose it is a neutrino. Essentially, if there is a standing wave node at the centre of the circle, that particle will be neutral. Or you could also say this — if there are an odd number of nodes, the particle will be neutral, if there are an even number of nodes, the particle will be «charged».

The next option is two knots:

Fig. 2 Electron and positron

I will assume that this pair of particles is an electron and a positron. For the electron the wave went down twice and up once, i.e. two negative and one positive bunches. If we add these bunches together, that’s what we get the tempo. I assume that this is the characteristic of tempo and for the electron it turns out to be -1, the total path from the centre to the lower region has been travelled. If you add up their numbers, you get -1 for the electron and +1 for the positron. That’s what charge is responsible for, or rather the inverse of it squared. That’s why it’s a constant. But once again, this is true only for standing waves, which can exist indefinitely. And the most important thing is that it is not the electromagnetic wave itself, which we are used to, but it is a wave in the region of space, which the electromagnetic wave created during its propagation.

This is the first «charged» particle — electron and positron. The most important thing to understand is that in this case the electric charge is responsible for the rate of change of the wave in the region of space. For standing waves the rate is always known to us, it should be an integer in the range from -1 to +1, i.e. only three values, only the characteristics will change — the radius of the circle of the particle, as well as the number of nodes or bundles, and the frequency of the wave, which is interrelated. And one more interesting fact is that for matter in the centre the magnetic dimension is always positive, and for antimatter it is always negative. This should not be confused with the concepts of magnetic field or tension, it is their totality, some common parameter of their interrelation. Here, once again I pay attention, we can see the connection between the rate and the charge, I omitted specific figures, the physics of the process is important, the figures will fall into place later.

Let me repeat that transverse waves are possible only in the presence of elasticity. From this it follows that the medium in which electromagnetic oscillations occur is capable of contracting and stretching. That is why the theory of relativity introduces the concept of curvature of space. Massive bodies are able to curve space.

— But what is this warp?

— What’s warping?

— What’s changing?

— What appears when massive bodies are formed?

— One answer is: The force of gravity.

— And what is the force of gravity expressed as?

— It is expressed in the appearance of some energy, such as potential energy.

— I.e. warping space leads to a change in energy. Or a change in energy leads to a curvature of space.

— Then what is the space filled with?

— And the answer is ENERGY.

I.e., generally speaking, everything around us is energy, I think this approach is possible to describe the WORLD. Space is energy, or space is filled with energy. Forces arise where there is a change in some «density» of energy. Electromagnetic vibrations occur in the fabric of energy.

We can say that a change in the electromagnetic dimension causes a change in the energy density in the space dimension. But an electromagnetic wave passes in the electromagnetic dimension, and it also represents a change in energy. That is, a change of energy in the electromagnetic dimension causes a change of energy in the space dimension.

How else can we come to such a conclusion, how can we understand what a particle is? Let us imagine the wave of the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave on a strip of paper, then roll the strip into a ring. Now we will mentally draw lines through the axis of the obtained wheel, connecting the amplitude on one side with the amplitude on the other side and we will notice that in some cases, everything depends on the drawn wave, these lines will not pass through the centre of the «created wheel», i.e. the amplitudes will not be equal in modulus and opposite in sign, they will not balance each other in the centre. If we imagine that these are actually some magnets, then in the centre of the construction there will be some force of interaction of these magnets, and if the construction is not held, it will fly around the circle like an electromagnetic wave. The same thing will happen if you imagine charged particles rather than magnets. If we combine all this, we can understand how the electromagnetic wave moves, and at the expense of what. That is, there will be waves of force or energy distribution within the structure. In some cases they can balance themselves, thus allowing the structure to stay in shape. This is the condition for the particle to exist. Yes, it so happens that there is a constant debate about what space is made of, and the word «Ether» generates negative perceptions. But, in fact, we don’t need to know what exactly fills the space, we can simply do without the concept of energy, because it is it that builds all our «matter and antimatter», it is what we are made of, and the WORLD we perceive and feel is ENERGETIC. WE ARE ENERGETIC BEINGS, and therefore we feel, sense, perceive only the impact of energy, its changes, its various manifestations. We may not be able to cognise what energy is spreading in, because our essence is energy.

An elementary particle could be most simply represented as a balloon — there is an outer shell, which is subject to tension force — similar to magnetic dimension, and there is a certain centre inside, where there are no forces, there is no energy, or rather there the total energy change is equal to zero. It is of course very simplified, because there are no wave processes of energy difference neither on the sphere, nor inside, but constructively corresponds to the principle of elementary particles construction.

One can, of course, imagine an elementary particle as a sliced orange peel. It, on the one hand, represents a certain elastic string along the surface of the ball, but on the other hand it can be considered as a spring in the space dimension, for example along the x-axis. Twisting and untwisting such a string-spring around the x-axis one can get standing waves similar to the waves of elementary particles. If you look at the spring along the x-axis, you will notice that somewhere the spring will be compressed and somewhere uncompressed — this will be nothing but the change of energy density along this process. The density will either have some sort of maximum or minimum. Either the size will decrease and the coil density (energy) will increase, or the size will increase but the coil density will decrease.

I.e., in essence, a particle is a standing wave of energy in the form of a ball. But it consists not only of the surface of its boundary. We must also consider the spheres nested within the sphere. It’s these spheres that are interconnected. I.e. inside there will be also a wave of electromagnetic space change in the area of space dimension. And exactly this wave should be standing. The electromagnetic wave itself can be not standing, which will create the effect of spin. That is, the total number of half-waves along the sphere will be constant, but the overall picture of the wave itself can rotate.

It is energy, or rather its change, that is always the basis of physical processes. I think that this option is quite appropriate.

In this article there is no purpose of more precise consideration of the structure of the surrounding WORLD. Also there is no exact understanding of what energy is.  I.e. here I assume that energy is some substance that fills the WORLD, we only notice the change of density of this substance. The change of its density creates the appearance of different forces. It is also possible to display a particle by means of a circle with different fillings, let the area of energy transition from space dimension to magnetic dimension be light, and the area of energy transition from magnetic dimension to space dimension be darker:

Fig. 3 Electron and positron

This is approximately the picture we get, but there is one important ‘but’, in this case the change of energy transition regions is in the middle of the whole radius of the particle, which is not quite correct for the space dimension. Since there is a transition of energy from space dimension to magnetic dimension, in this case the size decreases and mass increases, and vice versa — if the transition is from magnetic dimension to space dimension, the size will increase and mass will decrease. This effect is similar to the effect of time changing with a change in velocity in Einstein’s theory of relativity.  In such a case we get approximately the following form:

Fig. 4 Electron and positron

I.e. mass of electron and positron will be the same, but energy distribution will be different. At the same time at their superposition particles will annihilate each other, and uniformly distributed energy will be obtained.

With neutral particles in terms of mapping in the form of energy transition is a little more complicated. To understand what happens first, let us draw the process of the emergence of a particle and an antiparticle neutrino. In fact, they are identical in structure, but here is what happens:

Fig. 5 The birth of neutrinos and antineutrinos.

Initially they are not different and if we take into account that at birth they were the first single particles, it is to be expected that the energy density around, pressing on their boundary, creates equal forces, and as long as their central axes are not separated, nothing special arises, but when their axes separate a little, the effect of rotation is born at once:

Fig. 6 Occurrence of rotation of neutral particles

Therefore all neutral particles will rotate, and at change of their location relative to each other their rotation will change, i.e. a neutral particle and its antipode — antiparticle, will change places, they are not constant, they are interconnected. The difference between the particle and antiparticle of neutral particles is only in the change of rotation side. Also it is necessary to note that the interrelation of this pair passes through the common centre of mass, if to define rotation of one particle, the second particle will also know its parameter. But they can also change their rotation parameters, everything depends on what is their mutual position. I.e. yes Einstein was right in something that if you got the right glove, then the second glove should be left, but he was wrong in something — the glove can be left or right. It’s more like mittens, if one is left, the other will be right.

It is also interesting what the space around the neutral particle will be when it rotates. If its smaller half is defined up to radius of its larger half and imagine that initially density in this half, belonging to space, will have its average value, due to what space will start to create in this area gradient of density that would equalise total density of space in average and it will happen with finite speed. Plus add to it the process of rotation, and take into account that when the second half will come in contact with the levelled density of the space area, the reverse process will happen, the space will start to return now already excessive energy density in the space area. Taking into account the speed of reaction of space and speed of rotation we can understand that in the end in the received system of interaction a certain spiral of density in the area of space is formed. This is very important, it will later help to discover the fractality of the universe.

Consider the following possible particle (both as a wave and as energy fields), suppose it is a proton:

Fig. 7 Proton and antiproton

As it is known the proton consists of three quarks — this is for a simple model, which is very well seen when mapped in the form of energy regions. In fact, this structure can be complemented by other quarks (if considered as a wave or as transition points from one region to another), as it is now known. Quarks in this case (as I understand it) are nothing but half-waves of curvature of space, well, or half-waves of magnetic dimension, and it is clear that by themselves they cannot exist, the meaning of a standing wave is lost. These half-waves are different, three of one sign and two of another. In this case it turns out that the proton consists of five quarks, the very concept of quark is very convenient for describing the interactions in the atom, will help to describe the sublevels for electrons, will describe the absorption and release of energy in the form of quanta, at the transition of electrons on sublevels, and also allows you to accurately calculate and describe the processes of nuclear reactions.

For «charged» particles at their boundary some gradient of density change in the region of space is formed, either the energy density will increase or will decrease. Hence there is an effect of interaction of particles with different type of charge. I.e. the same-impedance ones repel, the different-impedance ones attract. This can be explained by the fact that the total energy density of the surrounding WORLD will try to minimise the distortions created by the density of particles at their boundary. One should not also forget about what the «charged» particle carries in its centre, this is also very important. And the difference of behaviour of matter and antimatter depends on the last factor. For matter, in the centre of the particle there will be a lower energy density compared to the surrounding WORLD, which will lead to the gravitational effect and macroobjects will be created. In the case of antimatter the process will go the opposite way, all particles will try to «move away» from each other as far as possible.

Let us try to understand the mechanics of grouping macroobjects. Let there be only one simplest ‘charged’ particle in space — an electron, let us consider the interaction of the particle and space with each other, here we can consider it in the form of wave representation, and we can consider it in the form of energy fields:

Fig. 8 Interaction of a particle of matter and space

When viewed in the form of a wave (Fig.8), we can say that there are two identical waves of energy change at the edges of the particle, therefore these two distortions of space on the left and right in relation to the surrounding space will balance each other and therefore no forces acting on the particle at the expense of these parts will be observed, therefore we can consider only the forces that act in the very centre of the particle, and for matter (for the electron in this case), in this small space will be observed the appearance of force from the middle circle to the centre, I.e., generally speaking, we can say that the formation of the particle is due to the fact that all the surrounding space (the universe) as if compresses the energy into a point, i.e. we can draw this picture of forces from the outside space in relation to the centre of the particle:

Fig. 9 The result of the effect of space on a particle of matter.

Here we need to understand, how will space ‘change’ to create such an effect? What happens to the density of space in this case? We know that the force arises when energy (energy density) changes. So on the side of space, from the boundary of the particle to the boundary of space, there will be some gradient of energy density that will balance the force. I.e. on the side of space around the matter particle there will be an increased energy density in the space dimension. And this will be observed regardless of the ‘layers’ of the particle, this is the result necessary to balance the change in the centre of the particle. The outer layers of the particle are needed to form the particle itself as a limited object, but the particle brings change to the whole space, so its centre part will make its imprint on the state of the whole surrounding space. It is very important, exactly this process of change of density of space itself later will be decisive at the moment of formation of black hole, and also it becomes the reason of appearance of dark matter effect.

Fig. 10 Change of energy density in the region of space due to the birth of a mother particle

Fig.10 demonstrates the change of space energy density around a matter particle. At interaction of two particles the area of change of space density gradient will already pass through the common centre of mass and ‘envelope’ both particles. Around the macroobject this area will increase with the increase of the total mass. I.e. around macroobjects there will be a region of space with increased energy density on the side of space dimension. This is dark matter — a gradient of energy density due to the formation of matter by the macro-object. This region creates a picture of uniform distribution of the total energy density over the whole space. It balances out the ‘distortion’ of energy density due to particle formation. When this surrounding space density reaches values equal to the energy densities in the outer layers of the particles, the particles are destroyed, they cease to be separate in size, they collapse and there is a redistribution of energy in the same way, but with much larger sizes.

Fig. 11 Disappearance of a particle when it enters a space with increased density.

Fig. 11 shows the moment of disappearance of a particle (electron) at reaching the boundary of a black hole. Due to the equal energy density of space and the outer layer of the particle, its boundary ceases to limit the size of the particle, and it blurs, it is more correct to say that it becomes an ordinary electromagnetic wave, which creates the relic radiation. Its central part passes to the region of black hole, the external layer passes to the side of surrounding space. If the outer layer of the particle, as at proton, has density as at the central part, then having reached borders of a black hole there is first transition of the first outer layer to a black hole, then, the second layer returns to the region of space, more precisely remains before border of a black hole, and at last the core passes to the region of a black hole. There is a redistribution of energy quantity between space and black hole.

Understanding what ‘dark matter’ is, we need to go back to neutral particles and imagine what will happen to the general picture of space if it is twisted. We need to remember that the propagation speed of density change is not instantaneous, but has a certain limit. The particle is bigger on one side and smaller on the other. If it did not rotate, the density would equalise everything evenly, but taking into account the rotation of the particle on the side of space there will be a fluctuation of the density of space in the form of waves up and down and left and right. I.e. the final distribution of space density will go to the form of a spiral. I will return to it in the final chapter — unification.

Let us return to the consideration of particles. Now, having defined the forces we can consider the interaction of particles among themselves:

Fig. 12 Birth of gravitational force, formation of macroobjects.

From figure 12 we can see that between the particles (in this case in the middle of the distance between them) there will be a point where the force on the side of space will be equal to zero. I.e. this is a place where there is no change of energy of space, which occurred due to the birth of particles, space will try to reduce the change of its density. These forces between two particles will compensate each other and there will be a resultant force on the side of space, which will make the particles get closer to each other. This is the gravitational force. It is also worth noting that along the line perpendicular to the line of motion of the particles to each other, and passing through this midpoint (centre of mass). There will be a gradient in the distribution of the density of space. Since along this line there will be a change of the resultant force, it means that there will be an inhomogeneous energy density of space. This is the emergence of ‘dark’ matter. The more particles will ‘stick together’, the more dense the surrounding space will become.

For antimatter particles, if all reasoning is carried out in a similar way, we will get in the end:

Fig. 13 Birth of antigravity force between antimatter particles.

Whence the opposite picture is seen, since in the centre there is a flow of energy from the area of magnetic dimension to the area of space dimension, the force will be directed not to the centre of the particle, but away from it. And it means that the force of interaction between particles will be directed to distance from each other. By analogy with dark matter, in this case there will be a ‘size increase’ or dark energy effect. But it will become clear when applying the phenomenon of fractals to the process, about it a little later.

That leaves the last option, the interaction between particles and antiparticles:

Fig. 14 Interaction of particles and antiparticles.

If we consider the segment connecting their centres, we see that the force given to space through the antiparticle compensates the force given to space to the particle for its compression. Ideally, antiparticles lined up along the circle around the particle:

Fig. 15 Redistribution of matter and antimatter particles

compensate for the uneven curvature of space. Inside such an object a uniform distribution of energy will be created. If the ‘circle’ is not closed, the particles in the centre will continue to be attracted to the particles outside the circle, uniting with them in consequence.

The construction similar to Fig.15, but in which particles and antiparticles change places, will be unstable. It follows from the fact that the matter particles will start to group together around a common centre, and the antiparticles in the centre of such a system will try to scatter.  Such a structure will collapse.

As a result we can say that at joint interaction particles and antiparticles will keep from each other at some distance, but they will not scatter.

At interaction of particles at close distances, we have to take into account other ‘layers’ of the particle. Here it will be important what energy density of the particle on its boundary is, and for this the charge of the particle is responsible, in this case it is necessary to take into account the interaction of the particles themselves, and not only the surrounding space.

If not to go into concrete figures, then at reaching certain sizes, the space around macroobjects, compacts or discharges to the density of external shells of particles, which leads to annihilation of particles and interacting antiparticles, due to which particles of higher order and larger size are formed, because the created picture of energy density distribution is preserved. At the same time, due to redistribution of energy in space, at ‘merging’ of particles and formation of matter particles of higher order, there is a birth of antiparticle of higher order. I.e. antiparticle of higher order appears at the moment of redistribution of space density due to the birth of a particle of matter of higher order. It is formed not by small particles as current particles, but at the expense of redistribution of density in the total volume of the formed object. In this case the total amount of energy remains unchanged. Only the picture of energy distribution changes. Certainly, occurrence of particle and antiparticle occurs not always at formation of black holes, everything will depend on parameters of created wave, only at certain parameters a stable object — particle will be created, and in pair with its antipode. At mismatch of parameters, energy again will be distributed on space, creating usual electromagnetic wave of relic radiation and black hole will disappear.

Because of the peculiarity of its structure antimatter is not able to create atoms more complex than antihydrogen, that is why they still can not find clusters of antimatter. The optical spectrum of antihydrogen completely coincides with the optical spectrum of hydrogen, they are indistinguishable, and all other elements of antimatter can be obtained, but only at the expense of significant energy resources, because antimatter is not able to form macroobjects such as stars.

The next important question is:

— What is a photon?

It seems to be a particle, but it doesn’t stand still, why? I.e. it must also be a standing wave to be a particle, but at the same time, it cannot be at rest.

If we look closely at the structure of particles, we can find one peculiarity — their centre of mass (about mass a little later) and the centre of the sphere coincide. In this case, there will be no distortion of forces caused by pressure of energy from outside, i.e. due to the shape of the particle in its centre the total force will be equal to zero, so the particle will be at rest.

If we arrange the wave of magnetic dimension in such a way that the centre of mass and the centre of sphere of the particle do not coincide, then the resulting force will be different from zero, which will lead to the appearance of acceleration. It is this skewness that gives rise to the peculiarity of photons. It is the effect of skewness that gives birth to the peculiar engine.

A photon can be a bullet shape, an electromagnetic wave must have a variable frequency. Along the axis connecting the centre of mass with the geometric centre, rotation can occur.

Such a construction can explain many manifestations of the photon, such as the polarisation of light, its speed of motion, as well as explain the processes occurring inside complex structures like the atom.

The emergence of forces. Fifth dimension.

As we know from particle physics, there are four fundamental forces or interactions — gravitation, electromagnetism, strong and weak nuclear interactions.

We have dealt with gravitation in the last chapter. In fact, the strong nuclear interaction force is also considered there, but not specified. It arises due to the peculiarity of the structure of neutral particles, more precisely their behaviour — rotation, which creates, at close interaction of particles — the force of keeping them with each other — the force of strong nuclear interaction.

When describing Fig. 12 it was said:

It is also worth noting that along the line perpendicular to the line of motion of particles to each other, and passing through this midpoint (centre of mass), there will be observed a gradient of space density distribution. Since along this line there will be a change in the resultant force, it means that there will be an inhomogeneous energy density of space.

Fig.16 The birth of the electromagnetic force.

Let’s consider Fig. 16 more closely. We obtain in space a certain line passing through the centre of mass and perpendicular to the segment connecting the particle centres. Along this line the resultant force in the space dimension will be equal to zero, i.e. there will be no change of space density. In all other regions there will be a gradient of density change in the space dimension.

Now let’s go back and see what the gravitational force is. If through the centre of particle A we draw a line parallel to the line with unchanged density in the region of space, then everything to the left of this line will ‘press’ on the particle, tending to move it to the common centre of mass. The same situation happens with particle B, only now we need to consider the region to the right of the line passing through its centre and parallel to the line with unchanged density. The force directed to converge to the common centre of mass is the gravitational force.

Now let us consider the inner planes, i.e. the planes bounded by the same straight lines but ranging from A to C and from C to B. Here the particles are trying to bounce off each other. And in a sense they succeed at a certain distance between them. This will depend on the force of compression of space at the centre of the particle. I.e. the result of the impact of particles between each other in the inner region of interaction will be the manifestation of the electromagnetic force. In fact, this force is directed against the gravitational force. And while it is in minority it is incommensurably greater than the gravitational force, it opposes the whole surrounding space.

As a result, the gravitational force tries to bring the particles closer together, while the electromagnetic force tries to separate them from each other. This is where the antagonism of these two forces is born. The common point of their contact is the centre of mass.

When the number of interacting particles increases, there is a gradual decrease of the action of this force in the region of space, because there is a ‘filling’ with energy of the space dimension at the expense of the magnetic dimension. The gradient of density change on the side of the magnetic dimension starts to equalise, thus the force on the side of the magnetic dimension starts to manifest itself less, it is smeared inside the space of the macroobject. This all leads to a gradual reduction of the distance between particles and, most importantly, to a change in the density of the uniform energy density in the space dimension.

This process of opposing two forces creates all known physical phenomena. It creates temperature (chaotic motion, constant change of the common centre of mass) when particles interact with each other, due to this there are different states of matter. Magnetic properties are born. And all, all, all other phenomena.

If we take a closer look at what is happening, it becomes clear that the magnetic dimension is responsible for the transition of energy from the dimension of space to the dimension located on the sphere (electromagnetic wave propagates on the sphere), if we consider a three-dimensional object. I.e. the opposite is also true — a change in energy density on the surface of the sphere leads to a change in energy in the space dimension. The centre of mass is a common transition point. I.e. energy can change both along the coordinate axes of space and along the surface of the sphere.

How do spatial dimensions differ from each other, why are they introduced in physics? It can be observed that:

1. they are orthogonal to each other,

2. they have a common point of intersection,

3. it is impossible to describe changes in one of them using the other two.

Now the most important thing is to understand that the change of energy in the magnetic dimension is the next dimension for energy. Let’s call it the magnetic or fifth dimension. Let’s prove that this is really true.

The first point about orthogonality is clearly fulfilled, the surface of the sphere intersects with the coordinate axes at right angles. The second point is also fulfilled, there is a common point of intersection. The third point remains. It will be really so, if it will be possible to prove that it is impossible to describe the change of energy in the sphere area with the help of spatial coordinates.

The proof is actually very simple. Whatever we calculate related to a circle or sphere, whether it is the length of a circle, the area of a sphere, the area of a circle, or the volume of a sphere, the constant π (Pi) will be used everywhere. And it does not matter whether it will concern obtaining the total value of force (if there is a change of energy density on the circle or sphere), work (taking into account the change of the same energy density on the circle or sphere), the number π (Pi) is involved in all calculations. It is also known that the number π (Pi) itself is irrational, i.e. it has no finite value, it is infinite. It turns out that mathematically it is simply impossible to get an exact value when using spatial coordinates. You can name any close value you want, but never an exact value. There is only one point uniting these measurements — the origin of coordinates or the centre of the sphere.

That is why it is impossible to describe the behaviour of energy along the sphere through spatial coordinates. The magnetic dimension is the next dimension for energy change.

Here it is necessary to pay attention that in fact uncertainty in mathematical calculations is possible in both directions. I.e. as it is impossible to calculate precisely the change of energy along the sphere using finite data on coordinate axes, so it is impossible to calculate the exact value of the centre of a circle or sphere if the exact length of the circle is known. All this just manifests itself in the fact that either there are exact coordinates of the particle in the space dimension, i.e. everything remains unchanged, but there is spin — rotation of energy density along the surface of the sphere, or the opposite process occurs — i.e. the wave along the surface of the sphere does not rotate, but in this case there is uncertainty of the position of the centre of the sphere, i.e., apparently, it will oscillate, it is not defined in the space dimension. Apparently, time is born here, because without its participation it is impossible to describe this process.

Continuing to consider Fig.16 it is easier to understand the appearance of the effects of dark matter and dark energy. At growth of volume of macroobject around it on a sphere (a line passing through the centre of mass in case of two particles on a plane is reborn in a sphere in case of consideration of volume bodies that would satisfy perpendicularity of interaction of forces) the area with change of energy density on the side of space with zero change of energy density on the side of space will begin to form, which will divide space into two areas — from it and to the centre of macroobject, a sharp drop of energy density on the side of space, and the area from the boundary of the black hole. In general this ring is nothing else than in consequence the event horizon of a black hole. On both sides of this ring there will be observed increase of energy density on the side of space dimension, and this change should be equal. As the inner region has a limitation in size, the outer one should be limited too, so that it is possible to equalise forces. Actually, this was laid down from the beginning when assuming that particles in the form of waves can exist in space, it is only possible inside a limited space. The inner region of this ring will have a sharper gradient of energy on the side of space to equalise the force arising from the outer side of the ring, this follows from the fact that the inner region will have a smaller area, so the gradient must be more pronounced. This is the process of dark matter forming around particles of matter or around macro-objects of matter.

The dark energy effect arises due to a similar interaction, but the opposite, essentially in the area of the antimatter particles. Antimatter is spent on the expansion of space, on the increase of energy density on the side of space. Only now it will happen not to a point, but to a sphere, there is an expansion of space.

There remains the last force — the force of weak nuclear interaction. Here it is necessary to consider interactions of particles themselves at close distances. It is necessary to consider the charge of particles — i.e. what happens at the boundary of the particle — what is the energy density of space at the boundary of the particle?

For example electrons — they have higher energy density in the space at the boundary, so no matter how you bring them closer, they will try to fly away from each other. There is only a variant of superposition of particles that can form a stable state — heavy particles.

With protons, there are other possible interactions. Since on their boundary a region with increased energy density in the region of space is formed, the union of these regions is ‘favourable’ for space — a part of energy returns to the region of space. The particles stick together. This is the force of weak nuclear interaction.

In fact, the main forces are gravitational force and electromagnetic force. The others are just different variants of their interaction.

That’s really all the forces.

Implications.

Movement of a charged particle in space leads to redistribution of energy density in space, which will also create an electromagnetic wave.

Particles are a wave, waves have crests and soles — these will be energetically favourable places for the interaction processes taking place. Transition from one state to another will be due to this discrete, i.e. change of states will be quantised. It is also necessary to notice that the quantisation value will be dictated by the parameters of the surrounding WORLD.

It is important to understand that what the ‘charged’ particle carries in its centre is uniformly redistributed throughout the space — this is the manifestation of the gravitational force.

The particle is an electromagnetic wave — the speed of propagation of which is limited by the speed of light, if we break this speed into components of motion in the area of magnetic dimension and in the area of space, we will get a dependence — the greater the amplitude in the area of magnetic dimension, the less the wave will travel in the area of distance.  The greater the amplitude of the magnetic component of the particle, the smaller the wavelength of the particle. This is the effect of warping space at the level of the elementary particle. So these are completely dependent quantities. It has been known for a long time that the higher the frequency of a particle, the higher its mass. Hence it follows that mass is a quantity depending on the amplitude of the wave in the area of magnetic measurement to the wavelength. It can also be said that mass depends on the change in energy density of the magnetic dimension in some occupied volume of space. Generally speaking, I would say that the characteristic of the dimension of space is size, and the characteristic of the manifestation of the magnetic dimension in a region of space is mass. For an electromagnetic wave we get the rule — the total amount of energy travelled by an electromagnetic wave will be a constant. I.e. the speed of light should be considered not as the speed of overcoming distance for time, but as the passage of the amount of energy for time. In this case everything will immediately fall into place. The notion of curvature of space can then be abandoned. The speed of light in the region of space will then become a variable value, it will depend on the energy density in the magnetic dimension. Space itself will also have mass, because in it, like a wave in elementary particles, there will also be waves of magnetic dimension, i.e. waves of energy, space has not changed. The formula E = mc² says nothing about the fact that space cannot have energy and mass, which are interrelated. This formula is valid for both particles and ‘empty’ space without particles. Mass in the ‘void’ — dark matter — is just a manifestation of energy on the magnetic dimension side. In fact, it is due to the ‘convolution’ of energy along the surface of the sphere. If we do not take these features into account and consider the speed of light only as a phenomenon related to space and consider it constant, then areas with expansion of space dimension (dark energy) and areas with increase of mass (dark matter) will start to appear.

Association.

It has long been known that the WORLD loves fractals. What happens in the interaction of matter and antimatter is nothing but the creation of a wave on an enlarged scale. There is a separation of energy density in space. Further there is an accumulation of matter to some point in a separate area and accumulation of antimatter in another area at some distance from the same centre of mass and at achievement of certain sizes and values of magnetic dimension there is a formation of ‘standing’ waves with the size of macroobjects, with formation of a black hole and some surface, with uniform energy density in the area of space in the form of a sphere, a kind of bubble, which together defines a particle.

If you look closely at Figures 4, 6 and 7 and imagine what will happen inside when neutral particles rotate, you will find that the images are similar to the view of galaxies, they repeat each other. For matter, for charged particles in the centre of galaxies there will be some area with small size but big mass (energy of size has passed into magnetic dimension, we can also say that energy of magnetic dimension has compressed space in size, increased energy density on the side of space), there is no rotation inside, it is nothing but a black hole. For neutral particles in the centre there will be a similar object, which will be constantly rotating, due to its uneven compression. Due to this, at this type of black holes will be observed jets, they have a tricky structure.

A black hole is nothing but the centre of an electromagnetic particle of galaxies scale, around which there will be a change of energy density in the region of space and in the region of magnetic dimension. There will be a similar black hole in any elementary particle.

The black hole is a centre for positive value of magnetic dimension it is the centre of the formed particle, and antimatter at formation of black hole creates around in space uniformly filled with energy shell of the received particle. I.e. antimatter particles themselves ‘straighten’ leaving only uniformly filled area of space.

Depending on a kind of galaxies, where the black hole is located it is possible to speak approximately about what kind of particle forms this galaxy.

For example, by virtue of a peculiarity of structure of neutral particles it is possible to predict that galaxies with their participation should rotate. If we see a globular galaxy, then we have a representative of a ‘charged’ particle.

Continuing the conversation about neutral particles, neutron stars are a very interesting object. It’s their rotation that’s their main distinguishing feature. Apparently neutron stars are the parents of neutral black holes.

Spiral galaxies probably have another feature — change of magnetic field direction, which is not very good for life.

And based on fractality we can further describe the structure of the WORLD and different variants of possible interactions. Only frequencies of electromagnetic waves and their size change. In fact, everything should be like that. The basic rules of interaction of waves of different lengths are already known to mankind. In fact, only waves of commensurate wavelengths can interact directly.

Looking at the vastness of the universe, at what is happening around us, we can talk about what is happening in the depths of elementary particles. It is easier to observe macroobjects than to try to ‘dissect’ an elementary particle. The fractality of the world allows us to do this. In this connection, of course, there are a lot of questions, because in this case each elementary particle contains its own galaxy, i.e. in this case the size of the universe becomes much larger, because the difference between big and small simply does not exist. In this case there is a question about the possibility of life inside elementary particles. And if this is true, then the world is much more complex and bigger than we have imagined it before. Although we were not able to imagine its size before, but in this case each of us represents the universe, and in the literal sense of the word. Fractality has no boundaries to either one side or the other. In this regard, I think there is no need to ‘break down’ particles any more. Only elementary particles are of interest because they are long-lived.

I also assume that the mind on our planet has already reached such knowledge. It’s just that, most likely, in times of magnetic poles change (we are in a spiral galaxy) life lost its knowledge. The phrase ‘the universe within us’ has long been known in esoteric works, but the meaning was not quite clear, now it becomes clearer. Also in Indian epics it is said about the weapon in which the whole force of the universe is contained, and now, if the structure of elementary particles is really such, as it is described here, then it becomes clear that nuclear reactions really take place with the use of all energy of the universe.

Well now back to the understanding of mass. It has long been known that E=mc², if we consider space to be filled with energy, then space without matter will have mass. I think that it makes no sense to look for dark matter in the form of some particles — it is just the surrounding space, which in consequence of matter formation starts to redistribute energy density to equalise the total energy density. Matter and antimatter is created inside a particle of a larger scale when the velocity of this particle changes, i.e. when there is acceleration. It is acceleration that is the source of energy redistribution and the formation of elementary particles. We know that mass depends on the speed of motion. Apparently change of speed of motion causes change of particle size, which leads to appearance of matter of lower order inside the particle. So there is spontaneous birth of particles and antiparticles in space, i.e. this process provides fluctuation in vacuum.

What can serve as a change of speed of motion? There are many reasons, mainly connected with interaction of particles, well and the mind, of course, is able to do all this — the same LHC.

For space will be observed all kinds of variants of lensing effects, which by the way can be used to ‘build’ telescopes the size of galaxies.

 The principle of photon structure can become a scheme for building an engine for travelling through the universe.

So how can such systems be built? The answer is perhaps simple:

— One can build different configurations, on the boundaries of which one alternates between magnets and charges. That is, you just need magnets and a voltage source. That’s it. There is no need for any super high-frequency waves, because all these are representatives of standing waves. And the level of charge and dilution of magnets (electromagnets can also be used) can regulate the parameters of these systems. It is only necessary to calculate correctly the construction of a standing wave.

What is primary — matter and antimatter are collected in groups, and then a ‘black hole’ is formed, or they were initially, and acceleration gives birth to matter and antimatter? This question has yet to be answered.

It is very interesting question what happens directly in the region of the black hole, which is limited by the event horizon and directly by the centre of mass. I believe that the process of energy density distribution should continue. I.e. there inside there will be a universe with its own speed of light, it should be different from the speed of light in our universe. The event horizon is like a barrier of speed transition to a new level — FTL for our perception. As I said, the speed of light is equal to the ratio of the amount of energy travelled to time. Energy density in the area of black hole should increase, mass of the universe outside, squeezes some space to a point, i.e. inside energy density in space dimension increases, mass remains on the outside, going to the point of mass centre, but in space dimension it becomes less, so speed of propagation of electromagnetic wave for our perception will become faster. I.e. for our universe, the processes inside the black hole will be faster. Actually it will seem to us that light, approaching to a black hole will leave only a trace of its presence. Though actually, it is quite possible, that it can instantly leave from any other place of a horizon of events, all will depend on presence of massive objects inside a black hole, and also on frequency of incoming radiation. The matter is that it is known for a long time that at transition of electromagnetic wave in areas with different density there will be observed the change of frequency of electromagnetic wave, and also the effect of dispersion can be observed.

Also it is possible to tell that inside the black hole there will appear black holes, and in them the next and the next, and most likely this process is infinite, because it passes in the form of a sphere and with participation of the centre of mass, and the centre of mass can never belong to the sphere.

Well and in conclusion I want to note that both theories are right — the theory of relativity and quantum theory. Energy itself has no quantisation, but taking into account that it creates a wave, there appear such characteristics as maximum and minimum which are responsible for occurrence of quanta of energy. Space itself is also quantised, black holes together with their event horizon quantise space, they create in a certain sense ‘limited systems’, due to what standing waves inside are possible. Due to it there is also quantisation of speed of light in each such object. I.e. in scales of galaxies there is no quantisation, everything is distributed uniformly and approximately with constant speed, but at consideration of the world of elementary particles, at transition to distances, commensurable to wavelength, we will observe quantisation. So there should be no more topic for debate. Each theory ‘on its own dimensions’ will describe the world more correctly.

Here is the whole hypothesis of building the WORLD from small to great with the use of fractality and all the knowledge that mankind has already accumulated.

And in conclusion, I would like to summarise — all these processes have one common component — it is ENERGY. Everything around us is made of it, and it is preserved in any situation. Electromagnetic waves, light, produce a ‘distribution’ of energy density between the dimensions of space and magnetic. Light gives birth to particles. Light is the force that creates everything around us. Why light? Because photons have irregular wavelengths, and some collisions of photons can produce particles with certain frequencies.

Afterword.

In fact, mankind has known other dimensions for a long time — it is, in fact, the mind itself. The mind is in space, it is in a magnetic field, but it has its own field of action. Yes, it has a point of intersection with them, but, in fact, it solves other tasks. The mind uses the environment to achieve its goals, it is able to break all conceivable and inconceivable laws or rules like the effect of entanglement. And it too has its own waves — good and evil, good and bad, like or dislike. These are all waves too, but in the dimension of Mind.

Life is a common dimension of the interaction between the material and the immaterial.

And GOD said, «Let there be LIGHT! Light is the power that creates everything around us.

This is the common point of contact between science and religion. Everyone is right in his own way, but as Jesus said — God is God’s and Caesar is Caesar’s, it’s just a line, but one cannot exist without the other. Humans are like light — they divide, they are a force of warp of another dimension. That is why man is dual, and he has to be, that is his purpose. He must be able to separate one from the other, that is his strength.

The mind itself can be divided into three dimensions — subconsciousness, consciousness and superconsciousness or intuition. Each lives in its own plane, and their common component gives the mind, it is how segments in spatial coordinates turn, for example, into a ball, or any other figure, acquires a shape. Subconsciousness itself is something very flat, it is responsible exclusively for satisfaction of vital needs and pleasures. Consciousness is also too flat in itself, if subconsciousness is «torn off» from it, the choice of consciousness becomes simply unnecessary. And intuition is meaningless by itself. Only the unification of these components gives the possibility of the origin of Reason. Reason cannot exist without satisfying its needs, without its passions, without compromises, without sacrifices, without struggle, and also without intuition how to act.

Let life be pleasant to you, love life, if only because it is more pleasant to live like that. There is simply no sense in a life dominated by unpleasant feelings. Do not waste your life on discouragement, frustration, anger. Try to sift out the bad feelings and leave only the good ones, the Mind is capable of this. Yes, there will be good and bad, but that is what allows you to appreciate and love life, that is its value. If you remove any of these elements, you will also destroy the opposite one. There is no good without bad, the perpendicular dimension — Mind — disappears at once. You yourself are this centre, you are the force that is able to create this wave and it is thanks to the duality of man. You change the world around you. Let it please you.

Life will pass by

♪ like a single moment ♪

# It’s a moment to be treasured

# And in it you’ll find pleasure #

# How you spend it

# It will pass #

♪ don’t forget that she’s ♪

♪ she’s your creation ♪

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Author — Sergey Skrynnik

Republic of Kazakhstan, Almaty, mailing address is: science@ast-1c.kz

26 June 2024